a powder kernel burns from the outside in - think a log of wood. If you have a tight stack of logs, the outside ones have to burn before the inside ones can get going.
That is the same as a full case load of powder. Only some of it can burn, building pressure and pushing the bullet down the barrel giving more volume this allowing a few more logs to start burning. As the bullet moves down the barrel volume increases thus reducing pressure, but s progressive burn fills up the space and keeps pressure constant accelerating the bullet down the barrel.
Now instead of your tightly stacked logs, take say a 1/3 of the number and arrange them in open stack as would tinder sticks on a fire, with lots of space around each one. They will very quickly set alight and each burn at full rate.
Same happens in a half or a third full cartridge case. The initial primer will swirl up and ignite all the powder which will all burn at the same time, raising pressures hugely and raise the pressures at a speed beyond which the bullet can travel down the barrel lowering the pressure. This gives an over pressure situation which can stress the breach beyond its strength limits result the barrel and breech letting go.
For a subsonic load in a rifle cartridge you either a case with much less volume - and some are made this way, with very thick walls, or you need a powder which is pretty much sawdust - ie has a very low energy density. Trailboss is an example and was designed specifically for low velocity soft lead bullet training type rounds.
There have also been chamber inserts which allows you to fire pistol cartridges in a rifle, but these are mostly for big bore rifles.